Citations
Last Updated: October 16, 2024
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Low-Carb Diets
Low-carbohydrate diets have been shown to be more effective for short-term weight loss compared to low-fat diets (Foster et al. 2003, Samaha et al. 2003, Westman et al. 2002). In The Obesity Code, Dr. Jason Fung advocates for low-carbohydrate diets to reduce insulin levels, which he identifies as a primary driver of obesity and fat storage (Fung 2016). Studies like the DIRECT trial found that both low-carb and Mediterranean diets led to better weight loss and maintenance after two years compared to low-fat diets (Greenberg et al. 2009). In addition, low-carb diets often lead to more significant reductions in triglycerides and increases in HDL (the "good" cholesterol), which are favorable for heart health. See section on “Lean Mass Hyper Responders” for notes about mixed LDL results on low-carb diets. The best summary paper on low-carbohydrate diets is offered by Volek et al (2021).
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Dorans, K. S., Bazzano, L. A., Qi, L., He, H., Chen, J., Appel, L. J., ... & He, J. (2022). Effects of a low-carbohydrate dietary intervention on hemoglobin A1c: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA network open, 5(10), e2238645-e2238645.
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Volek, J. S., Phinney, S. D., Krauss, R. M., Johnson, R. J., Saslow, L. R., Gower, B., ... & Hamdy, O. (2021). Alternative dietary patterns for Americans: low-carbohydrate diets. Nutrients, 13(10), 3299.
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Fung, J. (2016). The Obesity Code: Unlocking the Secrets of Weight Loss (Why Intermittent Fasting Is the Key to Controlling Your Weight) (Vol. 1). Greystone Books.
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Sacks, F. M., Bray, G. A., Carey, V. J., Smith, S. R., Ryan, D. H., Anton, S. D., ... & Williamson, D. A. (2009). Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(9), 859-873.
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Greenberg, I., Stampfer, M. J., Schwarzfuchs, D., Shai, I., & DIRECT group. (2009). Adherence and success in long-term weight loss diets: the dietary intervention randomized controlled trial (DIRECT). Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 28(2), 159-168.
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Foster, G. D., Wyatt, H. R., Hill, J. O., McGuckin, B. G., Brill, C., Mohammed, B. S., ... & Klein, S. (2003). A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(21), 2082-2090.
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Samaha, F. F., Iqbal, N., Seshadri, P., Chicano, K. L., Daily, D. A., McGrory, J., ... & Stern, L. (2003). A low-carbohydrate as compared with a low-fat diet in severe obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(21), 2074-2081.
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Westman, E. C., Yancy, W. S., Edman, J. S., Tomlin, K. F., & Perkins, C. E. (2002). Effect of 6-month adherence to a very low carbohydrate diet program. The American Journal of Medicine, 113(1), 30-36.
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Westman, E. C., & Volek, J. S. (2002). Very-low-carbohydrate weight-loss diets revisited. Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine, 69(11), 849.
Low-Carb & Diabetes
VLCDs have gained attention for their role in managing type 2 diabetes.
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Feinman, R. D., Pogozelski, W. K., Astrup, A., Bernstein, R. K., Fine, E. J., Westman, E. C., ... & Worm, N. (2015). Dietary carbohydrate restriction as the first approach in diabetes management: critical review and evidence base. Nutrition, 31(1), 1-13.
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Goldenberg, J. Z., Day, A., Brinkworth, G. D., Sato, J., Yamada, S., Jönsson, T., ... & Johnston, B. C. (2021). Efficacy and safety of low and very low carbohydrate diets for type 2 diabetes remission: systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished randomized trial data. bmj, 372.
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Hansen, C. D., Gram-Kampmann, E. M., Hansen, J. K., Hugger, M. B., Madsen, B. S., Jensen, J. M., ... & Krag, A. (2023). Effect of calorie-unrestricted low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet versus high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 176(1), 10-21.
Time-Restricted Eating & Fasting
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Manoogian, E. N., Wilkinson, M. J., O’Neal, M., Laing, K., Nguyen, J., Van, D., ... & Taub, P. R. (2024). Time-Restricted Eating in Adults With Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Annals of Internal Medicine.
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Dutzmann, J., Kefalianakis, Z., Kahles, F., Daniel, J. M., Gufler, H., Wohlgemuth, W. A., ... & Sedding, D. G. (2024). Intermittent Fasting After ST-Segment–Elevation Myocardial Infarction Improves Left Ventricular Function: The Randomized Controlled INTERFAST-MI Trial. Circulation: Heart Failure, 17(5), e010936.
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Fung, J. (2016). The Obesity Code: Unlocking the Secrets of Weight Loss (Why Intermittent Fasting Is the Key to Controlling Your Weight) (Vol. 1). Greystone Books.
Conflicts of Interest for Dietary Guideline Authors
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Mialon, M., Serodio, P. M., Crosbie, E., Teicholz, N., Naik, A., & Carriedo, A. (2024). Conflicts of interest for members of the US 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Public Health Nutrition, 27(1), e69.
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Noakes, T. D. (2021). Hiding unhealthy heart outcomes in a low-fat diet trial: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial finds that postmenopausal women with established coronary heart disease were at increased risk of an adverse outcome if they consumed a low-fat ‘heart-healthy’diet. Open heart, 8(2), e001680.
Lean Mass Hyper-Responders
Some studies suggest that low-carb diets may help reduce blood pressure and improve lipid profiles by reducing triglycerides and increasing HDL. However, concerns remain about the long-term effects on LDL cholesterol, particularly with very low-carb or ketogenic diets that are high in saturated fats.
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Budoff, M., Manubolu, V. S., Kinninger, A., Norwitz, N. G., Feldman, D., Wood, T. R., ... & Nasir, K. (2024). Carbohydrate restriction-induced elevations in LDL-cholesterol and atherosclerosis: the KETO trial. JACC: Advances, 3(8), 101109.
Low-Carb, Fasting, and Cancer
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Kämmerer, U., Klement, R. J., Joos, F. T., Sütterlin, M., & Reuss-Borst, M. (2021). Low carb and ketogenic diets increase quality of life, physical performance, body composition, and metabolic health of women with breast cancer. Nutrients, 13(3), 1029.
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Sadeghian, M., Rahmani, S., Khalesi, S., & Hejazi, E. (2021). A review of fasting effects on the response of cancer to chemotherapy. Clinical nutrition, 40(4), 1669-1681.
Other Intriguing Studies & Dietary Approaches & Studies
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Baker, S. (2019). The carnivore diet. Victory Belt Publishing.
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Norwitz, N. G., & Soto-Mota, A. (2024). Case report: Carnivore–ketogenic diet for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: a case series of 10 patients. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, 1467475.
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Lennerz, B. S., Mey, J. T., Henn, O. H., & Ludwig, D. S. (2021). Behavioral characteristics and self-reported health status among 2029 adults consuming a “carnivore diet”. Current developments in nutrition, 5(12), nzab133.
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Norwitz, N. G., & Naidoo, U. (2021). Nutrition as metabolic treatment for anxiety. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 598119.
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Paoli, A., Rubini, A., Volek, J. S., & Grimaldi, K. A. (2013). Beyond weight loss: a review of the therapeutic uses of very-low-carbohydrate (ketogenic) diets. European journal of clinical nutrition, 67(8), 789-796.